An evolutionarily more recent and much more damaging disruption of our microbiome emerged in the mid 1929’s when Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin [1] and antibiotics began to be used for human medicine. Antibiotics were and remain a miracle drug. Fewer people die now from secondary infections as complications from surgery or due to opportunistic bacterial pathogens. However, there is a cost for this miracle – disturbance of the microbiome. The antibiotics most frequently used are broad-spectrum, which are indiscriminate killers of all things bacterial.  Which one of these is not like the other? Antibiotics take advantage of basic differences between humans (and other eukaryotes) and bacteria. Both eukaryotes and bacteria use proteins called ribosomes to make the mRNA for protein synthesis that they need for feeding, reproduction, and other basic, essential functions. However, the ribosomes are very different between eukaryotes and bacteria. So much so that antibiotics that target bacterial ribosomes can’t and don’t recognize the ribosomes of eukaryotes. So humans still have proteins made while the bacterial machinery is shut down. Aminoglycosides like streptomycin and gentamicin are examples of these antibiotics inhibiting protein synthesis. Another antibiotic target is the bacterial cell wall. Peptidoglycans, a special set of sugars (carbohydrates),